Confounded

In causal inference, confounding is a form of systematic error that can distort estimates of causal effects in observational studies. A confounder is traditionally understood to be a variable that (1) independently predicts the outcome, (2) is associated with the exposure, and (3) is not on the causal pathway between the exposure and the outcome. Failure to control for a confounder results in a spurious association between exposure and outcome.